Public Relations and Mass Communication Theories Systems theory of PR System--a set of interdependent units which endure within an established boundary by responding and adjusting to change pressures from the environment. Closed system Impermeable boundary: cannot exchange matter, energy or information with its environment. Does not adapt to external change. Static. Eventually disintegrates. Open system Boundary is permeable. Exchanges inputs and outputs through boundary. Responsive&emdash;adjusts and adapts&emdash;to environmental change. Survival and growth depend on interchange with environment. Inputs from the environment can be reactions to system's outputs, can be result of change independent of outputs, can have impact on system's goals. Adjustments directed internally / externally Internal outputs change/maintain goals. External outputs change/maintain environmental conditions. Interchange with environment is cyclical. Must continually adjust in order to maintain equilibrium&emdash;homeostasis Relatively open/closed systems No social system is totally open or totally closed. Systems are relatively open or relatively closed. Relatively closed systems use reactive program planning and management. Activated only when disturbed&emdash;reacting to crises, problems. Relatively open systems Rely on feedback&emdash;positive or negative. Negative feedback is most important for equilibrium. Error-message. System adjusts. Positive feedback results in amplifying or maintaining course. Anticipate change; Influence environment; Proactive Actively probe and monitor environment. Use early warning to Make adjustments Generate internal and external output Prevent or avoid disturbances or problems later. Leads to control over its domain in a crisis. Effective in preventing crises. Organizations as systems PR is part of adaptive subsystem, distinct from production, maintenance & managerial subsystems. PR is boundary-spanner. Proactive PR keeps organization sensitive to environmental changes. PR in open system PR actively monitors social environments and make adjustments. The most-open systems use two-way symmetrical model: PR practitioners are managers of change. Public relations establishes and maintains mutually dependent relationships between an organization and its publics. PR in open system, cont. PR efforts are part of an organization's managed behavior to achieve goals. Goals can be achieved by Maintaining existing relationships in the face of changing conditions. Continually adjusting relationships with publics in response to changing social environments. Adapting goals to accommodate change pressures. Employs communication as a tool to help organization and its publics solve problems: sharing information; solving problems. Proactive corrective actions may be most useful aspect of the open systems model. Reduces amount of effort required and trauma associated with crisis-oriented reactive PR. Communication Theory Mass Communication Mass Communication Theories Limited Effects of Mass Communication Magic Bullet Theory Predicts effects immediate, direct and uniform on everyone who receives a mass media message. 1933 Payne Fund Studies Herbert Blumer study of movies & children Recollections of adults, college students Conclusions: *Source of imitation *Unintentional learning *Emotional possession Little lasting influence 1933 Peterson-Thurston Study Movies and children Influence on children's attitudes toward issues Measured attitude change after 2-3 films Conclusions Uniform effects; Magic Bullet, S --> R *Cumulative effects Change in attitude = Change in behavior 1940 Cantril Study 1938 broadcast of War of the Worlds Limited, flawed Conclusions: *Individual differences Social categories *Critical ability Education Departure from Magic Bullet WWII&emdash;Military-Hovland Effectiveness of training films Frank Capra "Why We Fight" Pretest, posttest measures of attitudes, opinions, retention of facts Conclusions: *Limited effects Increased factual knowledge: education Cumulative effects 1948 The People's Choice Lazarsfeld: FDR vs. Wilkie prez campaign. Panel study -- May-November 1940. *Web of influence&emdash;family, friends, associates Media part of Web of Influence. The People's Choice, cont. *Two-step flow: Opinion leaders attend to media, personal influence. Similar socioeconomic status; role in diffusion of innovations, cultural and technical change. Effects of 1948 media campaign Media Influence 14%Activated -- getting people to do what predisposed to do, socially based predisposition Increased interest ---> greater exposure Selective exposure Crystallize intentions 53% Reinforced --Voters' intentions partisan 8% Converted -- Weakly tied to party; doubtful. Led to New theory: Media have selective and minimal consequences Only one set of influences among many. Based on importance of Learning, Individual differences Social categories Especially subcultures Uses & gratification theory Specific messages from specific media Selectively attended to Audience actively & freely selects content Not passive as in Magic Bullet Decisions influenced by personal interests, desires, values and habits of seeking gratification Television Studies 1950s TV Studies Effects on children Reduced time playing Modified free time Postponed bedtime 1960s TV Studies Wilbur Schramm: First large-scale study Uses & gratifications of children Patterns of viewing Fantasy, passive pleasures, escape, wish fulfillment, diversion. Incidental learning -- middle class instruction Related to age, ability, needs, preferences & viewing patterns. Families chief influence on taste. Not necessarily objective or correct. Positives: broadens knowledge, vocabulary, current events, accelerates intellectual development 1969 study on TV violence National Institute of Mental Health study found 80% of programming had violent content. 1969 study on TV violence National Institute of Mental Health study 80% of programs have violent content Frequent Unrealistic Hours of children's viewing most violent. No evidence of catharsis * Observational learning -- imitation of model Adolescent aggression projects 10-year longitudinal study Frequency of viewing violence related to level of aggression (correlational) Effects cumulative 1970s TV studies Found: Not giving full attention Prosocial effects TV violence harmful to some If predisposed In some environmental contexts Subcultural influence 1982 TV Violence Exposure ---> increased aggression Primetime remains violent Children's weekend programs more violent than primetime. Sex & violence Viewing sexual content has minimal effects Viewing sex with violence effects: Desensitization to plight of rape victims. Increased aggression toward women. Belief in rape myth. 90s studies on TV Violence Other effects: If not more aggressive, More easily controlled, More susceptible to repression. TV Violence Circle of Blame Networks Advertisers Producers The Public The government The medium Commercial structure of TV What we can do (PR campaigns) Endorse legislation in support of public-interest programming requirements. Write networks, etc., to complain & praise. Watch less. Watch critically. Watch selectively: choose programming to enlighten, enrich and inspire. Long-term effects of Mass Communication Social & cultural change Two theories of long-term influences for social & cultural change: Accumulation of minimal effects theory; Adoption of innovation theory. Repeated exposure to consistent message can change people, society. Accumulation theory Significant changes in beliefs, attitudes & behavior over time, if media focus repeatedly on an issue and are consistent in presenting uniform interpretation, especially when audience knows little or nothing about the issue from other sources. Accumulation theory factors Media persistence of focus. Media consistency of interpretation. Media corroboration or monopolization. Prominence: Saturation leads to salience. High, low threshold issues. Examples: Watergate, Vietnam, smoking, AIDS, Monica, Enron Adoption theory Media help society adopt new technologies, ideas, standards, fads & fashions Adoption curve Awareness Media spread information: ads reports Early adopters/opinion leaders Multi-step flow If useful, diffusion Adoption Back to top Back to Lectures Index